Inquiry Based Science Instruction Using Science Fair Projects Essay

In order to fully develop critical thinking skills necessary to function in the world of science, and the world in general, science teachers must incorporate more robust authentic inquiry activities, as part of their overall science curriculum. However, in my experience as a science teacher (18 years) and a science program director (3 years) in inner-city high schools in Boston, students do not have the opportunity to engage in robust authentic inquiry activities. Using my years’ experience in the public education system, it is clear to me that factors, such as teachers’ inadequate content knowledge, lack of motivation to implement inquiry, pressure to teach to high stake standardized tests, lack of experience conducting scientific research, and belief systems, hamper their ability and willingness to implement robust inquiry activities as part of their teaching. As a result, students suffer by not only missing the opportunity to fully engage in authentic inquiry, but also become unmotivated to engage in scientific research and or pursue scientific careers. The most effective means by which to overcome this authentic inquiry deficit is through the implementation of science fair projects, which go beyond traditional â€Å"cookbook lab† teaching methodologies. And while I am fully cognizant of the fact that my experience in this matter is biased based upon the workings of the Boston inner-city school system only, academics, such as Thienhuong Hoang, agree that science fair allow students to conduct scientific experiments thereby engaging them in inquiry process, rather than only allowing them to learn concepts. 2010) Inquiry and the Science Fair Project For decades, inquiry has been the focus of science teaching. The National Research Council (NRC), for example, refers to inquiry as the central strategy for teaching science‚ (1996), and defines inquiry as â€Å"the diverse way in which scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on evidence derived from their work. † (1996) In addition, NRC notes that inquiry seeks to create opportunities for learners to engage in science and to build an in-depth understanding based on their previous ideas and experiences. Further, NRC recommends that teachers engage students in inquiry asking scientific questions, using evidence in responding to questions, formulating explanations from evidence, connecting explanations to scientific knowledge, and communicating and justifying findings. (2000) I fully concur with the position of NRC regarding inquiry, and have, throughout both my prior teaching career and current position as a science program director, included and required teachers to include inquiry – and particularly science fair – as the foundation of their teaching. As a result, students have achieved deeper content knowledge and broader understanding of scientific processes. Inquiry through science fair projects, rather than traditional â€Å"cookbook lab† methods of science teaching and learning, in which students follow a predetermined protocol and the results of the experiment are known in advance, allow students to more fully engage in critical thinking and learning. Further, only inquiry – and specifically science fair – helps students better develop and understand the need to engage in probing questions to scientific problems. This, in turn, affords students increased opportunities to propose and develop their own methodologies, and increases their scientific literacy skills. Thus, science fair projects are a key link between science education and the work of scientists in real life. An aspect of scientists’ work that I believe is crucial for students to acquire is the significance of ethics and conclusions based on data collected through scientific research, due to the potential implication of the scientist’s work on society. For example, the racial classification in the early 18th century of the superiority and inferiority of races, which became part of the Western racial ideology, was the result of scientific research involving different human characteristics, which was later determined to be falsified. (Carlton, 2008) Similarly, western gender stereotypes have biased historical research of gender studies in the south (Fennell and Arnot, 2008); thereby rendering such research limited in its historical significance and material use. Thus, exposing students to authentic scientific inquiry via science fair projects is not only necessary to the student’s academic success, it is, in my opinion, a vital component of the development of critical thinking skills necessary to separate authentic scientific data and research results from potentially questionable results; like the superiority/inferiority of different races and other biases. Teacher Beliefs and Experience  Teachers’ actions in the classroom tend to reflect their own belief systems. This holds true both in my own experience working in the field of education, and other academics. For as Wallace and Kang note in their article â€Å"An Investigation of Experienced Secondary Science Teachers’ Beliefs About Inquiry: An Examination of Competing Beliefs Sets†, â€Å"what a teacher actually does in the classroom is representative of her beliefs. (2004) Additionally, in conducting research for their article â€Å"White Male Teachers on Differences: Narratives of Contact and Tensions†, Jupp and Slattery note the comments of one of the participants in the research project as stating â€Å"†¦teachers are certainly biased against certain children, especially if they don’t know them, and often are surprised at the amount of intelligence and cultural awareness of minority children who have been raised in quote-unquote the right way, you know, the middle class family type of situation†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (2010) A teacher holding this ideology, for example, is likely to engage students in an inferior level of inquiry because the teacher’s assumption is that such students are incapable of critical thinking. Jupp and Slattery also noted in the interview of participants (Ibid), â€Å"†¦you can see that people are going out of their way to be sure that students don’t feel divorced from the curriculum†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This translates to teachers’ beliefs that if the emphasis is placed on inquiry – and specifically science fair projects, which requires a great deal of time – it will be at the expense of teaching for high stake standardized tests. Finally, Wallace and Kang, (2004) in their article â€Å"An Investigation of Experienced Secondary Science Teachers’ Beliefs About Inquiry: An Examination of Competing Beliefs Sets†, note that the teacher’s knowledge, or lack thereof, dictates his or her actions in the classroom. 2004) Therefore, it is clear to me – both in my own experiences in the field of education and based upon the literature – the possession of strong content knowledge, as well as research and science teaching e xperience, is essential to the effective teaching of inquiry, since a teacher that possesses this necessary skill set is better equipped to help students develop their ideas through probing at a deeper level. The use of science fair projects, therefore, is a key bridge in this knowledge gap, since science fair allows students the ability to conduct their own scientific research and develop their own scientific hypotheses. Barriers to Inquiry Studies show that there exist many barriers affecting the implementation of inquiry. For example, Trautmann, MaKinster, and Avery, in their article â€Å"What Makes Inquiry so Hard (And Why is it Worth it? )†, cite that the main reason teachers are reluctant to implement inquiry stems from the need to be efficient. 2004) Teachers feel they have to choose between teaching facts which students later regurgitate on standardized tests, and teaching with a focus on in-depth learning, which is more effectively attained through inquiry – and specifically through science fair projects. Trautmann, MaKinster and Avery also noted that the pressure placed upon teachers and schools to prepare students for high stake standardized tests impedes the implementation of inquiry in science classes. (Ibid) As a result, science teachers feel the need to maintain control of their classroom, as a method of controlling the curriculum required for standardized tests, rather than allow students to work independently on science fair projects. Another obstacle hampering the implementation of authentic scientific inquiry teaching – and specifically the implementation of science fair projects – is that teachers have a tendency to employ the same teaching strategies as the ones they experienced as students. (Davis, 2003) As such, they resist change and miss the opportunity to be innovative in their teaching by incorporating inquiry into their curriculum – especially with respect to science fair projects. Further, teacher training, in general, does not offer an effective model for the practice of science instruction based on inquiry. As a consequence, teachers are limited in their ability to carry out authentic inquiry, in general, in their classrooms. This inability to teach via authentic inquiry prohibits them from adopting science fair projects as part of their curriculum.

Monopoly and marginal cost Essay

Practice Questions and Answers from Lesson III-3: Monopoly Practice Questions and Answers from Lesson III-3: Monopoly The following questions practice these skills: ? Explain the sources of market power. ? Apply the quantity and price affects on revenue of any movement along a demand curve. ? Find the profit maximizing quantity and price of a single-price monopolist. ? Compute deadweight loss from a single-price monopolist. ? Compute marginal revenue. ? Define the efficiency of P = MC. ? Find the profit-maximizing quantity and price of a perfect-price-discriminating monopolist. ? Find the profit-maximizing quantity and price of an imperfect-price-discriminating monopolist. Question: Each of the following firms possesses market power. Explain its source. a. Merck, the producer of the patented cholesterol-lowering drug Zetia b. Chiquita, a supplier of bananas and owner of most banana plantations c. The Walt Disney Company, the creators of Mickey Mouse Answer to Question: a. Merck has a patent for Zetia. This is an example of a government-created barrier to entry, which gives Merck market power. b. Chiquita controls most banana plantations. Control over a scarce resource gives Chiquita market power. c. The Walt Disney Company has the copyright over animations featuring Mickey Mouse. This Is another example of a government-created barrier to entry that gives the Walt Disney Company market power. Question: Skyscraper City has a subway system, for which a one-way fare is $1. 50. There is pressure on the mayor to reduce the fee by one-third, to $1. 00. The mayor is dismayed, thinking that this will mean Skyscraper City is losing one-third of its revenue from sales of subway tickets. The mayor’s economic adviser reminds her that she is focusing only on the price effect and ignoring the quantity effect. Explain why the mayor’s estimate of a one-third loss of revenue is likely to be an overestimate. Illustrate with a diagram. Answer to Question: A reduction in fares from $1. 50 to $1. 00 will reduce the revenue on each ticket that is currently sold by one-third; this Is the price effect. But a reduction in price will lead to more tickets being sold at the lower price of $1. 00, which creates additional revenue; this is the quantity effect. The price effect is the loss of revenue on all the currently sold tickets. The quantity effect is the increase in revenue from increased sales as a result of the lower price. Question: Consider an industry with the demand curve (D) and marginal cost curve (MC) shown in the accompanying diagram. There is no fixed cost. If the industry is a single-price monopoly, the monopolist’s marginal revenue curve would be MR. Answer the following questions by naming the appropriate points or areas. Practice Questions and Answers from Lesson III-3: Monopoly a. If the industry is perfectly competitive, what will be the total quantity produced? At what price? b. Which area reflects consumer surplus under perfect competition? c. If the industry is a single-price monopoly, what quantity will the monopolist produce? Which price will it charge? d. Which area reflects the single-price monopolist’s profit? e. Which area reflects consumer surplus under single-price monopoly? f. Which area reflects the deadweight loss to society from single-price monopoly? g. If the monopolist can price-discriminate perfectly, what quantity will the perfectly price-discriminating monopolist produce? Answer to Question: a. In a perfectly competitive industry, each firm maximizes profit by producing the quantity at which price equals marginal cost. That is, all firms together produce a quantity S, corresponding to point R, where the marginal cost curve crosses the demand curve. Price will be equal to marginal cost, E. b. Consumer surplus is the area under the demand curve and above price. In part a, we saw that the perfectly competitive price is E. Consumer surplus in perfect competition is therefore the triangle ARE. c. A single-price monopolist produces the quantity at which marginal cost equals marginal revenue, that is, quantity I. Accordingly, the monopolist charges price B, the highest price it can charge if it wants to sell quantity I. d. The single-price monopolist’s profit per unit is the difference between price and the average total cost. Since there is no fixed cost and the marginal cost is constant (each unit costs the same to produce), the marginal cost is the same as the average total cost. That is, profit per unit is the distance BE. Since the monopolist sells I units, its profit is BE times I, or the rectangle BEHF. e. Consumer surplus is the area under the demand curve and above the price. In part c, we saw that the monopoly price is B. Consumer surplus in monopoly is therefore the triangle AFB. f. Deadweight loss is the surplus that would have been available (either to consumers or producers) under perfect competition but that is lost when there is a single-price monopolist. It is the triangle FRH. g. If a monopolist can price-discriminate perfectly, it will sell the first unit at price A, the second unit at a slightly lower price, and so forth. That is, it will extract from each consumer just that consumer’s willingness to pay, as indicated by the demand curve. It will sell S units, because for the last unit, it can just make a consumer pay a price of E (equal to its marginal cost), and that just covers its marginal cost of producing that last unit. For any further units, it could not make any consumer pay more than its marginal cost, and it therefore stops selling units at quantity S. Practice Questions and Answers from Lesson III-3: Monopoly Question: Bob, Bill, Ben, and Brad Baxter have just made a documentary movie about their basketball team. They are thinking about making the movie available for download on the Internet, and they can act as a single-price monopolist if they choose to. Each time the movie is downloaded, their Internet service provider charges them a fee of $4. The Baxter brothers are arguing about which price to charge customers per download. The accompanying table shows the demand schedule for their film. Price of download Quantity of downloads demanded $10 0 $8 1 $6 3 $4 6 $2 10 $0 15 a. Calculate the total revenue and the marginal revenue per download. b. Bob is proud of the film and wants as many people as possible to download it. Which price would he choose? How many downloads would be sold? c. Bill wants as much total revenue as possible. Which price would he choose? How many downloads would be sold? d. Ben wants to maximize profit. Which price would he choose? How many downloads would be sold? e. Brad wants to charge the efficient price. Which price would he choose? How many downloads would be sold? Answer to Question: a. The accompanying table calculates total revenue (TR) and marginal revenue (MR). Recall that marginal revenue is the additional revenue per unit of output Price of download Quantity of downloads TR MR demanded $10 0 $0 $8 1 $8 $8 $6 3 $18 $5 $4 6 $24 $2 $2 10 $20 $-1 $0 15 $0 $-4 b. Bob would charge $0. At that price, there would be 15 downloads, the largest quantity they can sell. c. Bill would charge $4. At that price, total revenue is greatest ($24). At that price, there would be 6 downloads. d. Ben would charge $6. At that price, there would be 3 downloads. For any more downloads, marginal revenue would be below marginal cost, and so further downloads would lose the Baxters’ money.e. Brad would charge $4. A price equal to marginal cost is efficient. At that price, there would be 6 downloads. Practice Questions and Answers from Lesson III-3: Monopoly Question: Suppose that De Beers is a single-price monopolist in the market for diamonds. De Beers has five potential customers: Raquel, Jackie, Joan, Mia, and Sophia. Each of these customers will buy at most one diamond—and only if the price is just equal to, or lower than, her willingness to pay. Raquel’s willingness to pay is $400; Jackie’s, $300; Joan’s, $200; Mia’s, $100; and Sophia’s, $0. De Beers’s marginal cost per diamond is $100. This leads to the demand schedule for diamonds shown in the accompanying table. Price of Diamond Quantity of Diamonds Demanded $500 0 $400 1 $300 2 $200 3 $100 4 $0 5 a. Calculate De Beers’s total revenue and its marginal revenue. From your calculation, draw the demand curve and the marginal revenue curve. b. Explain why De Beers faces a downward-sloping demand curve. c. Explain why the marginal revenue from an additional diamond sale is less than the price of the diamond. d. Suppose De Beers currently charges $200 for its diamonds. If it lowers the price to $100, how large is the price effect? How large is the quantity effect? e. Add the marginal cost curve to your diagram from part a and determine which quantity maximizes De Beers’s profit and which price De Beers will charge. Answer to Question: a. Total revenue (TR) and marginal revenue (MR) are given in the accompanying table. Price of Diamond Quantity of Diamonds TR Demanded $500 0 $0 $400 1 $400 $300 2 $600 $200 3 $600 $100 4 $400 $0 5 $0 MR $400 $200 $0 -$200 -$400 The accompanying diagram illustrates De Beers’s demand curve and marginal revenue (MR) curve. b. De Beers is the only producer of diamonds, so its demand curve is the market demand curve. And the market demand curve slopes downward: the lower the price, the more customers will buy diamonds. c. If De Beers lowers the price sufficiently to sell one more diamond, it earns extra revenue equal to the Practice Questions and Answers from Lesson III-3: Monopoly price of that one extra diamond. This is the quantity effect of lowering the price. But there is also a price effect: lowering the price means that De Beers also has to lower the price on all other diamonds, and that lowers its revenue. So the marginal revenue of selling an additional diamond is less than the price at which the additional diamond can be sold. d. If the price is $200, then De Beers sells to Raquel, Jackie, and Joan. If it lowers the price to $100, it will also sell a diamond to Mia. The price effect is that De Beers loses $100 (the amount by which it lowered the price) each from selling to Raquel, Jackie, and Joan. So the price effect lowers De Beers’s revenue by 3 ? $100 = $300. The quantity effect is that De Beers sells one more diamond (to Mia), at $100. So the quantity effect is to raise De Beers’s revenue by $100. e. The marginal cost (MC) curve is constant at $100, as shown in the diagram. Marginal revenue equals marginal cost at a quantity of 2 diamonds. So De Beers will sell 2 diamonds at a price of $300 each. Question: Use the demand schedule for diamonds given in the previous question. The marginal cost of producing diamonds is constant at $100. There is no fixed cost. a. If De Beers charges the monopoly price, how large is the individual consumer surplus that each buyer experiences? Calculate total consumer surplus by summing the individual consumer surpluses. How large is producer surplus? Suppose that upstart Russian and Asian producers enter the market and the market becomes perfectly competitive. b. What is the perfectly competitive price? What quantity will be sold in this perfectly competitive market? c. At the competitive price and quantity, how large is the consumer surplus that each buyer experiences? How large is total consumer surplus? How large is producer surplus? d. Compare your answer to part c to your answer to part a. How large is the deadweight loss associated with monopoly in this case? Answer to Question: a. The monopoly price is $300. At that price Raquel and Jackie buy diamonds. Raquel’s consumer surplus is $400 ? $300 = $100; Jackie’s is $300 ? $300 = $0. So total consumer surplus is $100 + $0 = $100. Producer surplus is $300 ? $100 = $200 for each diamond sold; 2 ? $200 = $400. b. In a perfectly competitive market, P = MC. That is, the perfectly competitive price is $100, and at that price 4 diamonds will be sold—to Raquel, Jackie, Joan, and Mia. c. At the competitive price, Raquel’s consumer surplus is $400 ? $100 = $300; Jackie’s, $300 ? $100 = $200; Joan’s, $200 ? $100 = $100; and Mia’s, $100 ? $100 = $0. So total consumer surplus is $300 + $200 + $100 + $0 = $600. Since the price is equal to marginal cost, there is no producer surplus. d. Under perfect competition, the sum of consumer and producer surplus is $600 + $0 = $600. Under monopoly, the sum of consumer and producer surplus is $100 + $400 = $500. So the loss of surplus to society from monopoly—the deadweight loss—is $600 ? $500 = $100. Question: Use the demand schedule for diamonds given in the previous questions. De Beers is a monopolist, but it can now price-discriminate perfectly among all five of its potential customers. De Beers’s marginal cost is constant at $100. There is no fixed cost. a. If De Beers can price-discriminate perfectly, to which customers will it sell diamonds and at what prices? b. How large is each individual consumer surplus? How large is total consumer surplus? Calculate producer surplus by summing the producer surplus generated by each sale. Practice Questions and Answers from Lesson III-3: Monopoly Answer to Question: a. If De Beers can price-discriminate perfectly, it will charge each customer that customer’s willingness to pay. That is, it will charge Raquel $400, Jackie $300, Joan $200, and Mia $100. De Beers does not want to sell to Sophia since she will only buy at a price of $0, and that would be below De Beers’s marginal cost. b. Since each consumer is charged exactly her willingness to pay, there is no consumer surplus. De Beers’s producer surplus is $400 ? $100 = $300 from selling to Raquel; $300 ? $100 = $200 from selling to Jackie; $200 ? $100 = $100 from selling to Joan; $100 ? $100 = $0 from selling to Mia. So producer surplus is $300 + $200 + $100 + $0 = $600. Question: Download Records decides to release an album by the group Mary and the Little Lamb. It produces the album with no fixed cost, but the total cost of downloading an album to a CD and paying Mary her royalty is $6 per album. Download Records can act as a single-price monopolist. Its marketing division finds that the demand schedule for the album is as shown in the accompanying table. Price of album Quantity of albums demanded $22 0 $20 1,000 $18 2,000 $16 3,000 $14 4,000 $12 5,000 $10 6,000 $8 7,000 a. Calculate the total revenue and the marginal revenue per album. b. The marginal cost of producing each album is constant at $6. To maximize profit, what level of output should Download Records choose, and which price should it charge for each album? c. Mary renegotiates her contract and now needs to be paid a higher royalty per album. So the marginal cost rises to be constant at $14. To maximize profit, what level of output should Download Records now choose, and which price should it charge for each album? Answer to Question: a. Total revenue (TR) and marginal revenue per album (MR) is shown in the following table: Price of album Quantity of albums TR MR demanded $22 0 $0 $20 1,000 $20,000 $20 $18 2,000 $36,000 $16 $16 3,000 $48,000 $12 $14 4,000 $56,000 $8 $12 5,000 $60,000 $4 $10 6,000 $60,000 $0 $8 7,000 $56,000 -$4 b. If the marginal cost of each album is $6, Download Records will maximize profit by producing 4,000 albums, since for each album up to 4,000, marginal revenue is greater than marginal cost. For any further albums, marginal cost would exceed marginal revenue. Producing 4,000 albums, Download Records will charge $14 for each album. c. If the marginal cost of each album is $14, Download Records will maximize profit by producing 2,000 albums, and it will charge $18 per album. Practice Questions and Answers from Lesson III-3: Monopoly Question: The movie theater in Collegetown serves two kinds of customers: students and professors. There are 900 students and 100 professors in Collegetown. Each student’s willingness to pay for a movie ticket is $5. Each professor’s willingness to pay for a movie ticket is $10. Each will buy at most one ticket. The movie theater’s marginal cost per ticket is constant at $3, and there is no fixed cost. a. Suppose the movie theater cannot price-discriminate and needs to charge both students and professors the same price per ticket. If the movie theater charges $5, who will buy tickets and what will the movie theater’s profit be? How large is consumer surplus? b. If the movie theater charges $10, who will buy movie tickets and what will the movie theater’s profit be? How large is consumer surplus? c. Now suppose that, if it chooses to, the movie theater can price-discriminate between students and professors by requiring students to show their student ID. If the movie theater charges students $5 and professors $10, how much profit will the movie theater make? How large is consumer surplus? Answer to Question: a. If the movie theater charges $5 per ticket, both students and professors will buy tickets. The movie theater will sell to 1,000 customers (students and professors), at a price of $5 each. Since the movie theater’s cost per ticket is $3, its profit is $2 per ticket for a total profit of 1,000 ? $2 = $2,000. Students will experience no consumer surplus, but each of the 100 professors will experience consumer surplus of $10 ? $5 = $5 for a total consumer surplus of 100 ? $5 = $500. b. If the movie theater charges $10 per ticket, only professors will buy tickets. The movie theater will sell to 100 customers (professors) at a price of $10 each. Since the movie theater’s cost per ticket is $3, its profit is $7 per ticket for a total profit of 100 ? $7 = $700. Students experience no consumer surplus since they do not buy any tickets. Each of the 100 professors experiences no consumer surplus since the price is equal to their willingness to pay. So consumer surplus is $0. c. If the movie theater charges students a price of $5, it sells 900 tickets at a profit of $5 ? $3 =$2 each for a profit from selling to students of 900 ? $2 =$1,800. Charging professors $10, it sells 100 tickets at a profit of $10 ? $3 =$7 each for a profit from selling to professors of 100 ? $7 =$700. So the theater’s total profit is $1,800 + $700 =$2,500. Since each customer is charged exactly his or her willingness to pay, there is no consumer surplus. Question: A monopolist knows that in order to expand the quantity of output it produces from 8 to 9 units that it must lower the price of its output from $2 to $1. Calculate the quantity effect and the price effect. Use these results to calculate the monopolist’s marginal revenue of producing the 9th unit. The marginal cost of producing the 9th unit is positive. Is it a good idea for the monopolist to produce the 9th unit? Answer to Question: The quantity effect is $1 (the increase in total revenue from selling the 9th unit at $1). The price effect is 8 ? (? $1) =? $8 (the decrease in total revenue from having to lower the price of 8 units by $1 each). So the marginal revenue of producing the 9th unit is $1 ? $8 =? $7. Since marginal revenue is negative, producing the 9th unit is definitely not a good idea: it lowers revenue (since marginal revenue is negative), and it increases the total cost (since marginal cost is positive). So it will definitely lower profit. Instead, the monopolist should produce less output.

Conditions for Using a Binomial Distribution

Binomial probability distributions are useful in a number of settings. It is important to know when this type of distribution should be used. We will examine all of the conditions that are necessary in order to use a binomial distribution. The basic features that we must have are for a total of n independent trials are conducted and we want to find out the probability of r successes, where each success has probability p of occurring. There are several things stated and implied in this brief description. The definition boils down to these four conditions: Fixed number of trialsIndependent trialsTwo different classificationsThe probability of success stays the same for all trials All of these must be present in the process under investigation in order to use the binomial probability formula or tables. A brief description of each of these follows. Fixed Trials The process being investigated must have a clearly defined number of trials that do not vary. We cannot alter this number midway through our analysis. Each trial must be performed the same way as all of the others, although the outcomes may vary. The number of trials is indicated by an n in the formula. An example of having fixed trials for a process would involve studying the outcomes from rolling a die ten times.  Here each roll of the die is a trial. The total number of times that each trial is conducted is defined from the outset. Independent Trials Each of the trials has to be independent. Each trial should have absolutely no effect on any of the others. The classical examples of rolling two dice or flipping several coins illustrate independent events. Since the events are independent we are able to use the multiplication rule to multiply the probabilities together. In practice, especially due to some sampling techniques, there can be times when trials are not technically independent. A binomial distribution can sometimes be used in these situations as long as the population is larger relative to the sample. Two Classifications Each of the trials is grouped into two classifications: successes and failures. Although we typically think of success as a positive thing, we should not read too much into this term. We are indicating that the trial is a success in that it lines up with what we have determined to call a success. As an extreme case to illustrate this, suppose we are testing the failure rate of light bulbs. If we want to know how many in a batch will not work, we could define success for our trial to be when we have a light bulb that fails to work. A failure of the trial is when the light bulb works. This may sound a bit backward, but there may be some good reasons for defining the successes and failures of our trial as we have done. It may be preferable, for marking purposes,  to stress that there is a low probability of a light bulb not working rather than a high probability of a light bulb working. Same Probabilities The probabilities of successful trials must remain the same throughout the process we are studying. Flipping coins is one example of this. No matter how many coins are tossed, the probability of flipping a head is 1/2 each time. This is another place where theory and practice are slightly different. Sampling without replacement can cause the probabilities from each trial to fluctuate slightly from each other. Suppose there are 20 beagles out of 1000 dogs. The probability of choosing a beagle at random is 20/1000 0.020. Now choose again from the remaining dogs. There are 19 beagles out of 999 dogs. The probability of selecting another beagle is 19/999 0.019. The value 0.2 is an appropriate estimate for both of these trials. As long as the population is large enough, this sort of estimation does not pose a problem with using the binomial distribution.

Immanuel, Kant (1724-1804) Essays - 1201 Words

Immanuel Kant was born in 1724 in the East Prussian town of Kà ¶nigsberg and lived there practically all his life. He came from a deeply pious Lutheran family, and his own religious convictions formed a significant background to his philosophy. Like Berkeley, he felt it was essential to preserve the foundations of Christian belief. Kant became Professor of Logic and Metaphysics at the University of Kà ¶nigsberg in 1770 and taught there for most of his life. He was also greatly interested in science and published works on astronomy and geophysics. His three most significant works were published later in life. The Critique of Pure Reason came out in 1781, followed in 1788 by the Critique of Practical Reason and in 1790 by the Critique of†¦show more content†¦When we wonder where the world came from, however - and then discuss possible answers - reason is in a sense on hold. It has no sensory material to process, no experience to make use of, because we have never experienced the whole of the great reality of which we are a tiny part. In such weighty questions as to the nature of reality, Kant showed that there will always be two contrasting viewpoints that are equally likely or unlikely, depending on what our reason tells us. It is just as meaningful to say that the world must have had a beginning in time as to say that it had no such beginning. Reason cannot decide between them. We can allege that the world has always existed, but can anything always have existed if there was never any beginning? So now we are forced to adopt the opposite view. Both possibilities are equally problematic. Yet it seems one of them must be right and the other wrong. uuigiugiugiiv Humes scepticism with regard to what reason and the senses can tell us forced Kant to think through many of lifes important questions again. He was especially interested in ethics. For Hume it was neither our reason nor our experience that determined the difference between right and wrong. It was simply our sentiments. This was too tenuous a basis for Kant, who had always felt that the difference between right and wrong was a matter of reason, not sentiment. In this he agreed with the rationalists, who said the ability to distinguishShow MoreRelatedEssay on Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804)1093 Words   |  5 PagesImmanuel Kant (1724 - 1804) Author of Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785). The Enlightenment was a desire for human affairs to be guided by rationality than by faith, superstition, or revelation; a belief in the power of human reason to change society and liberate the individual from the restraints of custom or arbitrary authority; all backed up by a world view increasingly validated by science rather than by religion or tradition. (Outram 1995) In the eighteenth centuryRead MoreImmanuel Kant (1724-1804) is better known for his Categorical Imperative Theory in which he bases600 Words   |  3 PagesImmanuel Kant (1724-1804) is better known for his Categorical Imperative Theory in which he bases the standard of rationality on fundamental moral principle. Mill’s on the other hand focuses on the Greatest Happiness Principle or the principle of utility. With regards to similarities between them Kant and Mills seem to have universal morality rules where Kant (duties) address one’s own will to be a universal law of nature and Mills (subordinate principles) acknowledging the same actions for all humansRead MoreComparing David Hume and Immanuel Kant Essay1356 Words   |  6 PagesComparing David Hume and Immanuel Kant David Hume and Immanuel Kant each made a significant break from other theorists in putting forward a morality that doesn’t require a higher being or god, for a man to recognize his moral duty. Although Hume and Kant shared some basic principals they differed on their view of morality. In comparing the different views on human will and the maxims established to determine moral worth by David Hume and Immanuel Kant, I find their theories on morality have someRead MoreCategorical Imperative2266 Words   |  10 Pagesimperative n. In the ethical system of Immanuel Kant, an unconditional moral law that applies to all rational beings and is independent of any personal motive or desire QUICK FACTS * NAME:  Immanuel Kant * OCCUPATION:  Philosopher * BIRTH DATE:  April 22, 1724 * DEATH DATE:  February 12, 1804 * PLACE OF BIRTH:  Kaliningrad (now Konigsburg), Russia * PLACE OF DEATH:  Kaliningrad (now Konigsburg), Russia Profile Immanuel Kant was born on April 22, 1724, in Kaliningrad (now Konigsburg)Read MoreEssay about Kants Formalism Theory716 Words   |  3 PagesKants Formalism Theory The theories of Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher, have had an impact on the formulation and shaping of ethics today. Immanuel Kant graced this earth from 1724 to 1804. During his eighty year life time, he formulated many interesting ideas regarding ethical conduct and motivation. Kant is strictly a non-consequentialist philosopher, which means that he believes that a persons choices should have nothing to do with the desired outcome, but instead mankind simplyRead MoreAnshelm ¬Ã‚ ¥s Proof of God ¬Ã‚ ¥s Existence1466 Words   |  6 Pagesput forward by Gaunilo, Aquinas and Kant. St. Anselm (1033-1109) was an Italian philosopher and monk who later left his country to become Archbishop of Canterbury. As Anselm firmly believed in God, he wanted to prove God ´s existence through use of logic and reason and thus set out to demonstrate it in his most popular book named â€Å"Proslogion† (1078) in which he proposed one argument that, centuries later, was termed Ontological Argument by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). That crucial argument claimed toRead MoreKant s Theory Of Rights929 Words   |  4 PagesKantian Justice Kant believed that humans beings are rational beings, worthy of dignity and respect. That the moral action does not consist on the consequences but instead in the intention of why the act was done. Its important to do what is right because it is right, and not for a personal motive. Kant does not believe in self-interest to be part of the moral worth. Self-interest such as wants, desires, and appetites are part of what he calls â€Å"motives of inclination†. He only believes that actionsRead More Kants Formalism Theory Essay715 Words   |  3 Pages Kants Formalism Theory nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp; The theories of Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher, have had an impact on the formulation and shaping of ethics today. Immanuel Kant graced this earth from 1724 to 1804. During his eighty year life time, he formulated many interesting ideas regarding ethical conduct and motivation. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Kant is strictly a non-consequentialist philosopher, which means that he believes that a persons choices should have nothing to doRead MoreEssay about Role of the Imagination for Romantic Poets1672 Words   |  7 Pagesstark contrast to the view of Immanuel Kant. Kant expressed in his Critique of Practical Reason, that knowledge is stemmed from experience and not derived from the senses. Kant believed that rationality and application of pure reason is what makes us human. Unlike Coleridge, Kant does not account for the creation of new ideas which could be deemed ironic as Kant’s Critique of Practical Reason could be regarded as a collection of new imaginative ideas. Much like Kant, Aristotle too acknowledged thatRead MoreImmanuel Kant: A Philosopher Who Influenced Society843 Words   |  4 Pagesphilosophers that impact society is Immanuel Kant; he was a philosopher in the 18th century. Immanuel Kant was born in April 22, 1724 in Kingdom of Prussia, German and died on February 12, 1804 at age 79. Philosopher Immanuel Kant composed different point of views to courage that we understand the world better. Kant is trying to tell us that there are many things that evolve around this world and that every little single element that we do makes the world what it is. Kant is well known for his work in

The Grass Is Greener On The Other Side Of The Fence

In many privileged minds, â€Å"the grass is greener on the other side of the fence†. This quote refers to individuals being unhappy with their current circumstances, usually when the individuals are financially and socially stable. However, to less fortunate individuals, this quote explicitly defines the cruel reality that they face on a daily basis. The aforementioned individuals are oppressed, or subject to prolonged cruel and unjust treatment. While the definition can be put into words, the true weight of the tragedy these people face cannot be. Oppression can exist in many forms, and can affect people from all walks of life. Most commonly, oppression exists in the form of racial inequality, economic gap, and even gender bias. By using the historical, economic, and social lenses, one can determine the causes of oppression and the devastating effects that they have on career development and personal success. In order to fully understand oppression, the origins of it must be closely analyzed. Oppression has existed since the first human civilizations came about, 12,000 years ago. In a 2005 article written by Morton Deutsch, a Psychology and Education professor at Columbia University, he states that the earliest divisions â€Å"were mainly based upon sex, age, and individual physical and social abilities† (Deutsch). Essentially, the most able-bodied workers, which were primarily male, got the largest share of resources in scarce times. Due to the inability to provide aShow MoreRelatedOppression And The Grass Is Greener On The Other Side Of The Fence2008 Words   |  9 PagesOppression In many privileged minds, â€Å"the grass is greener on the other side of the fence†. This quote refers to individuals being unhappy with their current circumstances, usually when the individuals are financially and socially stable. However, to less fortunate individuals, this quote explicitly defines the cruel reality that they face on a daily basis. The aforementioned individuals suffer are oppressed, or subject to prolonged cruel and unjust treatment. While the definition can be putRead MoreHealth Care Of The United States And Canada871 Words   |  4 Pagescitizens are covered for both their health care and prescription needs, it’s no wonder why there are more and more Americans wanting to seek coverage across the border. But are American’s the only one who may think the health care colored grass is greener on the other side of the border. This essay will discuss what health care systems are in the United States and in Canada, the costs involved, the quality of care, and if Canada achieved adequate health outcomes for less money. When the general publicRead More Themes in Raymond Carvers Literature Essay743 Words   |  3 Pagesultimately realize that they are bound to the truth of who they really are, which is shown in the story Neighbors. In Neighbors, Bill and Arlene Miller are a couple with menial jobs who give credence to the saying the grass is greener on the other side of the fence. They are dissatisfied with their own lives and look to the lives of their neighbors to find happiness in their own. Once a happy couple, they often feel that they alone among their circle had been passed by somehow (13). TheyRead MoreThe Grass is Always Greener500 Words   |  2 PagesThe Grass is Always Greener Elizabeth Gilbert, an author, writes, â€Å"You were given life; it is your duty (and also your entitlement as a human being) to find something beautiful within life, no matter how slight.† Nature, music, and art are all natural sources of this beauty that must be found. Neuroscience, however, indicates that the most beautiful images to men are those of women. Edith Wharton utilizes this concept of beauty in her novel, Ethan Frome. Wharton uses Ethan’s female cohabitants andRead MoreEssay on Death of a Salesman - Happy Lowman593 Words   |  3 Pagesinformation deeper in the texts, that shows Happy as who he really is. In a whole, the entire Loman family and their surrounding community, is one huge stereotype: the rural suburbs that turn into ghetto-like apartment district; the ‘grass-is-greener-on-the-other-side-of-the-fence neighbor; the loving wife and mother as well as the lowly housewife; the older, more handsome, more popular, more athletic brother; the anemic, know-it-all, that helps the ‘cool’ kids for popularity; and of course the ‘backbone’Read MoreLook Good, Feel Good: Going to Drastic Lengths for Beauty763 Words   |  4 Pagescomplicated plastic surgery, and this number is increasing every year. The major reason of this increscent is people want to change their physic to look pretty. Fake beauty or plastic surgery is an obsession this generation in spite of knowing the side effect to bring variation. People are obsessed with plastic surgery. A statistic report by British Association of Aesthetic Plastic Surgeons (BAAPS) indicates that a total of 50,122surgical procedures were carried out in 2013 alone in UK. There areRead MoreAdvantages to Studying Abroad789 Words   |  3 Pagesstudying in local universities. As the saying goes, â€Å"the grass always looks greener on the other side of fence.† In this way, I believe that considering abroad have extraordinary points of benefits. First and foremost, from personal angle, study abroad enables students to achieve high level of maturity and independence very quick. This is because they are being away from their support network like families. It may seem daunting but in the other hand it is actually a precious chance for the studentsRead MoreThe Decline of the West1059 Words   |  5 PagesThe Decline of the West In todays world we are getting more and more materialized. When being a kid in school it is all about getting the newest phone, wearing the most expensive clothing and every other materialized thing, to show off how much money we have. We measure our happiness in things, clothes, cars and so on. The greed of getting more and new things is decreasing. Before the financial crises in 2008 every family lent money to buy new things all the time. No worries were to be shownRead MoreHamlets Paradox of Man1011 Words   |  5 Pageslike no other writer has been able to do. He filled every one of his plays, most notably Hamlet, with eternal truths concerning human emotions. Shakespeare develops the paradox of man and contradictions of humanity with imagery, ironic siloques, and philosophical rants by Hamlet and Claudius. No one has ever returned from the dead. Nobody knows exactly what life after death is like. This is the thesis of Hamlets first paradox. The saying that grass is always greener on the other side of theRead MoreKey Components Of H.R. 3590. It Has Been Referred To By1168 Words   |  5 Pagesand signed into law on March 23, 2010 by President Barack Obama has now become this nation’s set of regulations, requirements and penalties for all American’s health care coverage. Depending on which side of the political fence you are standing on, you may not think the grass is really any greener. If one takes the time to at least skim over this massive, 2600-page of rules and regulations, there are components to it that you must agree, will drastically improve the lives of many. Will it improve

The Prevention of Crime Essay Sample free essay sample

Crime Prevention is the key to maintaining citizens safe. and the end of constabulary sections countrywide. In order to understand how to forestall offense we must look at the grounds offense occurs. Crime by definition is â€Å"the act or committee of an act that is out. or the skip of that responsibility that is commanded by public jurisprudence and that makes the wrongdoer apt to punishment by that jurisprudence. The bar of offense takes many forms in order to be effectual. We will measure what some of these stairss are. to set up a footing for bar of offense. In jurisprudence enforcement offense bar takes its most of import base. Crime bar in jurisprudence enforcement helps to guarantee that the citizens of our state remain safe from violent. repetition. and first clip wrongdoers. One methods used in the bar of offense by many sections around the state is that of Community Oriented Policing. We will write a custom essay sample on The Prevention of Crime Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Harmonizing to Burke ( 2010 ) . Community Oriented policing came approximately in the early 90’s as a plan to progress community policing. The chief focal point of the COP plan was to supply current tendencies of offense and research findings to cut down offense. Excess officers were higher bing in more interaction with the community. By policing excess and holding the excess resources to concentrate on particular jurisprudence enforcement operations. offense was significantly reduced. The COP theoretical account allowed for more interaction within the community. supplying officers with elaborate information to disturb countries. and where they could switch their focal point to demo a strong presence in said countries. Crime Prevention plays a large portion in the condemnable justness system. From the enforcement on the street by constabulary. to the tribunals in condemning the proposed penalty for the offenses. to the rehabilitation and reintegration of these wrongdoers into society to cut down recidivism rates. It is extremely regarded that the first manner in forestalling offense. is through analysis of offense and u pset. Harmonizing to Boba ( 2005 ) â€Å"The systematic survey of offense and upset. every bit good as other constabularies related issues including socio-demographic. particular and temporal factors- to help constabulary in condemnable apprehensiveness. offense and upset decrease. offense bar. and rating. † Condemnable analysis is used alongside bar techniques to help jurisprudence enforcement by using proper criterions and deployment of departmental resources in a more effectual and efficient mode. Another theory that has been contributed to the bar of offense is that of cognitive behavioural therapy for both juveniles and grownups. The chief focal point of behavioural therapy harmonizing to Clark ( 2011 ) . therapy has played a cardinal function in cut downing recidivism rates among juvenile captives. violent wrongdoers. and substance maltreatment. Clark states in his work that the therapy assumes the patients can be witting of their ain behaviour and ideas. and therefore able to do a alteration of a positive nature. This accent on the bar of offense is highly utile. due to the decrease of recidivism. By cut downing recidivism you can cognize worry more about rehabilitation of the wrongdoer. and non holding to come up with new methods and resources for halting them. The bar of offense will finally concentrate on the portion of jurisprudence enforcement. and their manners to proactive policing. This proactive consequence relies on the apprehension initiated by constabulary officers instead than collaring person after a call for service has been received and investigated. Other ways such as readapting resources to guarantee excess patrol in heavy offense countries suggest that due to heavy constabularies presence. a offense that would hold occurred will non because of the utmost presence of jurisprudence enforcement in the country. This does non ever affect wholly maintaining the wrongdoer from perpetrating a offense at a ulterior day of the month. but reduces the chance and opportunity of flight. The bar of offense carries many constituents. Crime bar begins from the lowest degrees of jurisprudence enforcement. and continues to the highest scopes of the tribunals. Our make up ones minding factors in the disincentive of offense depend on the system that enforces it. Through proactive policing patterns we can set up safer countries and cut down the chance to perpetrate discourtesies. Through the tribunals. we can set up proper penalty and condemning for wrongdoers to guarantee that the badness of the offenses equals the right penalty. Through this criterion of penalty. decrease and bar occur from the fright of enduring the effects. In the section of corrections. we can guarantee that bar occurs through behavior alteration. rehabilitation. and reintegration of wrongdoers to assist cut down future condemnable activity. The end and terminal consequence is the safety of the populace. through any and all resources available. Mentions Boba. R. ( 2005 ) . Crime Analysis and Crime Mapping. Thousand Oaks. California. Sage Publications. Inc. Burke. J. V. ( 2010 ) . Community Oriented Patroling: Background and Issues. Nova Science Publishers. Clark. P. ( 2011 ) . Preventing Future Crime With Cognitive Behavioral therapy. American Jails. 25 ( 1 ) . 45.

Jrotc Mission free essay sample

Thats why is to motivate young people to be better citizens. And it also teaches you mapping Skills at first I was thinking why Im learning these but you well some point In your life. Also It Gives you more respectable as you rank up In doing that you In toured well be looking for you to set up In take charge. As you get promoted its not because of your teacher its because you Work hard and you showed that you earned it. In you showed great leadership skills. Another Reason Is Jot wants you to seek self-improvement out yourself its not just another class you Just take but you are becoming a part of a family. By being a part of these program it also Teaches you to be responsibility and to take responsibity for your actions. Then every cadet has To take a physical fitness test it Is required. We will write a custom essay sample on Jrotc Mission or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page You may say to yourself that I can do It or Im not Going to do well. But thats why Jrotc mission Is to motivate young people to be better citizens. The Key word is motivate by having your ins tours there in your friends In other cadets there You wont even think about cant do It that would be the last think on your mind. It as well Teaches your deplane skills you may think I dont like people yelling at me but there not yelling. They Just helping you by bring out the best In you. In By doing all these things you be able to Teach the next class of cadets behind you. Thats how Jrotc builds character